Parasitic infections during early fish production stages: a review
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.29059/cvpa.v4i1.45Keywords:
aquaculture, alevin, helminths, protozoaAbstract
Parasitic infections represent a major health constraint in intensive aquaculture production, particularly during the early stages of the fish life cycle. High stocking densities, environmental stress, and immunological immaturity increase susceptibility to protozoan and helminth parasites with either direct or indirect life cycles. This review examines the main groups of parasites found in hatcheries and fish-rearing systems, including ciliates, dinoflagellates, monogeneans, myxosporeans, trematodes, and cestodes. Their prevalence, seasonality, transmission dynamics, and pathological effects on larvae, juveniles, and broodstock are discussed. Closed production systems reduce the risk of heteroxenous parasites, whereas earthen ponds favor their transmission through intermediate hosts. The interaction between environmental conditions and stocking density determines the clinical expression of disease and its impact on production. Epidemiological monitoring and a thorough understanding of parasite life cycles are essential for the development of effective preventive strategies.
References
Adriano, E. A., Silva, M. R., Atkinson, S. D., Bartholomew, J. L., & Maia, A. A. (2014). Myxidium ceccarellii n. sp. (Myxosporea) from the gallbladder of Leporinus elongatus (Anastomidae) from the São Francisco River, Brazil. Parasitology Research, 113(7), 2665-2670. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-014-3921-x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00436-014-3921-x
Alam, M. M., Khan, M. A., Hussain, M. A., Moumita, D., Mazlan, A. G., & Simon, K. D. (2012). Intensity of parasitic infestation in silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix. Journal of Zhejiang University SCIENCE B, 13(12), 1024-1028. https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B1200121 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B1200121
Alkali, A. L., Yila, L. S., Faruk, M. H., & Yusha, B. (2021). Influence of age on the prevalence of gill parasites and associated lesions in cultured African Catfish (Clarias gariepinus) in Sokoto, Nigeria. International Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 9(3), 32-41.
Arguedas, D., Ortega, C., Martínez, S., & Astroza, Á. (2017). Parasites of Nile tilapia larvae Oreochromis niloticus (Pisces: Cichlidae) in concrete ponds in Guanacaste, northern Costa Rica. Cuadernos de Investigación UNED, 313-319. https://www.scielo.sa.cr/pdf/cinn/v9n2/1659-4266-cinn-9-02-00313.pdf DOI: https://doi.org/10.22458/urj.v9i2.1904
Arbildo-Ortiz, H., Alvez-Robledo, J., Chuquipiondo Guardia, C., & Silva de Souza, A. K. (2020). Primer registro de infestación de Piscinoodinium pillulare (Dinoflagellida) en juveniles de Colossoma macropomum (Characiformes: Serrasalmidae) en cultivo semi-intensivo en Loreto, Perú. Revista de Investigaciones Veterinarias del Perú, 31(3), e16662. https://doi.org/10.15381/rivep.v31i3.16662 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15381/rivep.v31i3.16662
Austin, B., Austin, D. A., Dalsgaard, I., Gudmundsdóttir, B. K., Høie, S., Thornton, J. M., ... & Powell, R. (1998). Characterization of atypical Aeromonas salmonicida different methods. Systematic and Applied Microbiology, 21(1), 50-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0723-2020(98)80008-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0723-2020(98)80008-8
Bagnato, E., Gilardoni, C., Di Giorgio, G., & Cremonte, F. (2015). A checklist of marine larval trematodes (Digenea) in molluscs from Argentina, Southwestern Atlantic coast. Check List, 11(4), 1706. https://doi.org/10.15560/11.4.1706 DOI: https://doi.org/10.15560/11.4.1706
Banu, H., & Rathinam, R. B. (2023). Myxozoan fish diseases: possible treatment and zoonoses. Journal of Parasitic Diseases. 47, 215-223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12639-023-01568-9 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12639-023-01568-9
Bertaglia, E. d. A., Furtado,W. E., Silva e Souza, Â. T., Fernandes, M. C., Pereira, S. A., Brasil, E. M., Mouriño, J. L. P., Jerônimo, G. T., & Martins, M. L. (2023). Influence of seasonality and culture stage of farmed Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) with monogenean parasitic infection. Animals, 13, 1525. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13091525 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ani13091525
Boyd, C. E. (2015). Water quality (pp. 223-241). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International Publishing AG. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-17446-4_11
Bruno, D. W., Nowak, B., & Elliott, D. G. (2006). Guide to the identification of fish protozoan and metazoan parasites in stained tissue sections. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 70(1-2), 1-36. https://doi.org/10.3354/dao070001 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3354/dao070001
Cable, J., Tinsley, R. C., & Harris, P. D. (2002). Survival, feeding and embryo development of Gyrodactylus gasterostei (Monogenea: Gyrodactylidae). Parasitology, 124(1), 53-68. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0031182001008861 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0031182001008861
Cai, J., & Zhou, X. (2019). Contribution of aquaculture to total fishery production: the 50-percent mark. FAO Aquaculture Newsletter, 60, 43-45. Roma, FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Department, Italia.
Chai, J. Y. (2007). Intestinal flukes. In Food-borne parasitic zoonoses: fish and plant-borne parasites (pp. 53-115). Boston, MA: Springer US. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-71358-8_2
FAO. (2020). The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 2020. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1020-5489 9789251326923 https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/3934505/export/xe?
Faruk, M. A. R., & Anka, I. Z. (2017). An overview of diseases in fish hatcheries and nurseries. Fundamental and Applied Agriculture, 2(3), 311-316. https://doi.org/10.5455/faa.277539 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5455/faa.277539
Ghiraldelli, L., Martins, M. L., Jeronimo, G. T., Yamashita, M. M., & Adamante, W. D. B. (2006). Ectoparasites communities from Oreochromis niloticus cultivated in the State of Santa Catarina, Brazil. Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 1(2), 181-190. https://doi.org/10.3923/jfas.2006.181.190 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3923/jfas.2006.181.190
Guerra-Santos, B., Albinati, R. C., Moreira, E. L. T., Lima, F. W., Azevedo, T. M. D., Costa, D. S., Medeiros S. D. C., & Lira, A. D. (2012). Parâmetros hematológicos e alterações histopatológicas em bijupirá (Rachycentron canadum Linnaeus, 1766) com amyloodiniose. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira, 32(11), 1184-1190. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-736X2012001100019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-736X2012001100019
Isaksen, T. E., Karlsbakk, E., Sundnes, G. A., & Nylund, A. (2010). Patterns of Ichthyobodo necator sensu stricto infections on hatchery-reared Atlantic salmon Salmo salar in Norway. Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 88, 207-214. https://doi.org/10.3354/dao02173 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3354/dao02173
Kent, M. L., Andree, K. B., Bartholomew, J. L., El-Matbouli, M., Desser, S. S., Devlin, R. H., Feist, S. W., Hedrick, R. P., Hoffmann, R. W., Khattra, J., Hallett, S. L., Lester, R. J., Longshaw, M., Palenzeula, O., Siddall, M. E., & Xiao, C. (2001). Recent advances in our knowledge of the Myxozoa. Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology, 48(4), 395-413. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2001.tb00173.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1550-7408.2001.tb00173.x
Lan-Anh, N. T., Phuong, N. T., Murrell, K. D., Johansen, M. V., Dalsgaard, A., Thu, L. T., Kim-Chi, T. T., & Thamsborg, S. M. (2009). Animal reservoir hosts and fish-borne zoonotic trematode infections on fish farms, Vietnam. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 15(4), 540-546. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1504.081147 DOI: https://doi.org/10.3201/eid1504.081147
Martins, M. L., Cardoso, L., Marchiori, N., & Benites de Pádua, S. (2015). Infecções por protozoários em peixes cultivados no Brasil: Diagnóstico e patogênese. Revista Brasileira de Parasitologia Veterinaria, 24, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1984-29612015013 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S1984-29612015013
Mitiku, M. A., Konecny, R., & Haile, A. L. (2018). Parasites of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) from selected fish farms and Lake Koftuin central Ethiopia. Ethiopian Veterinary Journal, 22(2), 65-80. https://doi.org/10.4314/evj.v22i2.6 DOI: https://doi.org/10.4314/evj.v22i2.6
Mortuza, M. G., & Al-Misned, F. A. (2015). Prevalence of ectoparasites in carp fry and fingerlings of Rajshahi district, Bangladesh. Journal of Parasitic Diseases, 39(2), 130-133. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12639-013-0296-3 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12639-013-0296-3
Noga, E. J. (2010). Fish disease: Diagnosis and treatment (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118786758
Paperna, I. (1991). Diseases caused by parasites in the aquaculture of warm water fish. Annual Review of Fish Diseases, 1, 155-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-8030(91)90028-I DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-8030(91)90028-I
Post, G. W. (1983). Textbook of fish health (p. 256).
Reed, P., Francis-Floyd, R., Klinger, R., & Petty, D. (2012). Monogenean Parasites of Fish: FA28/FA033, rev. 6/2012. EDIS, 2012(8). https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-fa033-2012 DOI: https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-fa033-2012
Rojas-Garcia, C., Jimenez-Garcia, I., & Mendoza-Franco, E. (2020). Ecto-parasitic infection in nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) fry during male reversal in Veracruz, México. International Aquatic Research, 12(3) https://doi.org/10.22034/iar.2020.1898558.1046
Scholz, T., Kuchta, R., & Oros, M. (2021). Tapeworms as pathogens of fish: A review. Journal of Fish Diseases, 44(12), 1883-1900. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfd.13526 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jfd.13526
Snieszko, S. F. (1974). The effects of environmental stress on outbreaks of infectious diseases of fishes. Journal of Fish Biology, 6(2), 197-208. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.1974.tb04537.x DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8649.1974.tb04537.x
Soliman, F. M., Abd El-Galil, M. A. A., Adly, M. A., & Ahmed, F. A. A. (2013). Studies on trichodinosis of some cultured freshwater fishes at Sohag Governorate. Life Science Journal, 10(4), 1400-1409. https://www.lifesciencesite.com/lsj/life1004/185_21149life1004_1400_1409.pdf
Thien, C. P., Dalsgaard, A., Nhan, N. T., Olsen, A., & Murrell, K. D. (2009). Prevalence of zoonotic trematode parasites in fish fry and juveniles in fish farms of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Aquaculture, 295(1-2), 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.06.033 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2009.06.033
Valladão, G. M. R., Alves, L. D. O., & Pilarski, F. (2016). Trichodiniasis in Nile tilapia hatcheries: diagnosis, parasite: host-stage relationship and treatment. Aquaculture, 451, 444-450. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.09.030 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2015.09.030
Ventura, A. S., Jerônimo, G. T., Gonçalves, E. L. T., Tamporoski, B. R. F., Martins, M. L., & Ishikawa, M. M. (2013). Fauna parasitária dos híbridos siluriformes cachapinta e jundiara nos primeiros estágios de desenvolvimento. Pesquisa Agropecuária Brasileira, 48(8), 943-949. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2013000800019 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-204X2013000800019
Voutilainen, A., Huuskonen, H., & Taskinen, J. (2010). Penetration and migration success of Diplostomum spp. cercariae in Arctic charr. The Journal of Parasitology, 96(1), 232-235. https://doi.org/10.1645/GE-2095.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1645/GE-2095.1
Wafer, L. N., Whitney, J. C., & Jensen, V. B. (2015). Fish lice (Argulus japonicus) in goldfish (Carassius auratus). Comparative Medicine, 65(2), 93-95. https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4408894/
Wise, D. J., Griffin, M. J., Terhune, J. S., Pote, L. M., & Khoo, L. H. (2008). Induction and evaluation of proliferative gill disease in channel catfish fingerlings. Journal of Aquatic Animal Health, 20(4), 236-244. https://doi.org/10.1577/H08-023.1 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1577/H08-023.1
Woo, P. T. K., & Ardelli, B. F. (2014). Protozoan parasites of fish. In P. T. K. Woo (Ed.), Fish diseases and disorders (Vol. 1). CABI.
Yevtushenko, A. V. (2020). Features of the parasitic system formation in common carp in the aquaculture of the north-eastern and eastern regions of Ukraine. Journal for Veterinary Medicine, Biotechnology and Biosafety, 6(2), 9-15. https://doi.org/10.36016/JVMBBS-2020-6-2-2 DOI: https://doi.org/10.36016/JVMBBS-2020-6-2-2
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Ciencias Veterinarias y Producción Animal
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Accepted 2026-07-06
Published 2026-07-13
